It may be useful to highlight differences in how the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts answer four important questions about environmental regulation. A few pieces of evidence help evaluate the relevance of these issues. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) final " Clean Water Rule " issued on Wednesday reduces the agencies' jurisdiction to protect waters that have been covered under the Clean Water Act (CWA) since the 1970s. Column (2) adds controls for dwelling characteristics, and for baseline covariates interacted with year fixed effects. This implies that coefficients in the graph can be interpreted as the pollution level in a given year, relative to the pollution level in the period before the treatment plant received a grant. The gradual effect of the grants is unsurprising since, as mentioned earlier, the EPA estimates that it took 2 to 10 years after a grant was received for construction to finish. None of these ratios exceeds 1, though they are closer to 1 than are the values in TableVI. We deflate operating and maintenance costs and rents at a rate of 7.85% (Peiser and Smith 1985).23, Column (1) of TableVI includes only owned homes within a 1-mile radius of the downstream river segments; column (2) includes homes within a 25-mile radius; and column (3) adds rental units. This implies that the marginal implicit price of an amenity at a given point on the hedonic price schedule equals the marginal willingness to pay of the consumer who locates on that point of the hedonic price schedule. Parts of the Clean Air Act use cap-and-trade systems, but nearly none of the Clean Water Act does. A fourth question involves health. This tells us little about the Clean Water Acts effects, however, since its investments may take time to affect water pollution, expanded during the 1970s, and may be effective even if not obvious from a national time series. Decent Essays. One general conclusion from this literature is that the effect of federal grants on local government expenditure substantially exceeds the effect of local income changes on local government expenditure (the latter is typically around 0.10). As we approach the formal 50 th Anniversary of the Clean Water Act (CWA) next month, the Association of Clean Water Administrators (ACWA), which represents state clean water regulatory agencies, has partnered with EPA's Office of Water to create a " Clean Water Act Success Stories Map ." Cumulative grants include grants in all previous years, not only census years. When we fit the change in home values, we do so both for only the balanced panel of tract-years reporting home values, and for all tract-years. These comparisons also highlight features of the Clean Water Act that are not widely recognized and could lead it to have lower net benefits than some other environmental regulation. We also explored estimates controlling for city-year population or city-year municipal revenue. In years before a grant, the coefficients are statistically indistinguishable from zero, have modest magnitude, and have no clear trend (FigureIII). WHAT'S AT STAKE? People breathe the air quality where they live, and relocating to another airshed or some other defenses against air pollution are costly (Deschenes, Greenstone, and Shapiro 2017). This contrasts with the regulation of surface water quality in developing countries and in the historic United States (Ebenstein 2012; Alsan and Goldin forthcoming), where drinking water is less well filtered, piped water access less widespread, and stringent drinking water standards less common or less well enforced. Moreover, the share of industrial water discharge that was treated by some abatement technology grew substantially in the 1960s (U.S. Census Bureau 1971). Moreover, we are not aware of any existing ex post estimates of the cost required to make a river-mile fishable or to decrease dissolved oxygen deficits. Beginning in 1977, grants provided a higher 85% subsidy to projects using innovative technology, such as those sending waste-water through constructed wetlands for treatment. Reasons We Need the Clean Water Rule | whitehouse.gov Data include decennial census years 19702000. We calculate the present value of rental payouts as |$rentalPayout\frac{1-(1+r)^{-n}}{r}$|, where rentalPayout is the change in total annual rents due to the grants, r = 0.0785 is the interest rate, and n = 30 is the duration of the benefits in years. Most of these alternative approaches have similar sign, magnitude, and precision as the main results. Online Appendix B.3 describes the rule we use to choose indicators for this list; it mainly reflects the pollutants used in the USEPAs (1974) first major water pollution report after the Clean Water Act. Regulating Untaxable Externalities: Are Vehicle Air Pollution Standards Effective and Efficient? Paperless Cons. The Clean Water Act has protected our health for more than 40 years -- and helped our nation clean up hundreds of thousands of miles of polluted waterways. The Clean Water Act of 1972 protects the "waters of the United States" from unpermitted discharges that may harm water quality for humans and aquatic life. For instance, the Clean Water Act's grantmaking program has cost the U.S. government about $650 billion total, or about $1.5 million per year to make one mile of river fishable. We recognize the potential importance of nonuse values for clean surface waters and the severe challenges in accurately measuring these values.26 Other categories potentially not measured here include the value for commercial fisheries, industrial water supplies, lower treatment costs for drinking water, and safer drinking water.27 Evidence on the existence and magnitude of the benefits from these other channels is limited, though as mentioned already, recreation and aesthetics are believed to account for a large majority of the benefits of clean surface waters. Official websites use .gov Hines (1967) describes state and local control of water pollution in the 1960s, which typically included legislation designating regulated waters and water quality standards, a state pollution control board, and enforcement powers against polluters including fines and incarceration. Online Appendix E.2 discusses how cost-effectiveness numbers change with alternative estimates of crowding out.22. These graphs also suggest that existing evaluations of the Clean Water Act, which typically consist of national trend reports based on data from after 1972, may reflect forces other than the Clean Water Act. The only econometric analysis we know of such policies tests how the French policy of jointly taxing industrial air pollution and subsidizing abatement technologies affected emissions, using data from 226 plants (Millock and Nauges 2006). A city may spend a grant in years after it is received, so real pass-through may be lower than nominal pass-through. The 1972 to 2001 change equals the fitted value Year*29 + Year*1[Year>=1972]*29. Each of the four pollutants which are part of these fishable and swimmable definitions declined rapidly during this period. This analysis, however, is subject to serious concerns about use and nonuse estimates in the underlying studies. In the presence of such rents, this analysis could be interpreted as a cost-effectiveness analysis from the governments perspective. If approved, it will protect clean drinking water, upgrade water infrastructure, preserve open space and family farms, fight climate change, and keep communities safe from extreme weather,. Before The Clean Water Act. 33 U.S.C. Analysis includes homes within a given distance of downstream river segments. TableIV reports estimates corresponding to equation (5). First, people might have incomplete information about changes in water pollution and their welfare implications. Diving Into the Benefits of the Clean Water Act Iowa State and Center for Agricultural Research and Development. Flint, Michigan, has recently had high lead levels in drinking water due to switching its water source from the Detroit River to the Flint River. These calculations use our regression estimates and the cost data. Notes. Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act | US EPA Open Document. Adding rental units in column (3) barely changes this estimate. This does not seem consistent with our results because it would likely create pretrends in pollution or home values, whereas we observe none. Clean Water Act Pros And Cons - 1085 Words | Cram Online Appendix E.3 discusses interpretations of our housing estimates under alternative pass-through numbers. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Year-by-year trends for the other pollutants in the main analysisthe share of waters that are not swimmable, BOD, fecal coliforms, and TSSshow similar patterns (Online Appendix FigureIII). First, we limit regression estimates to the set of tracts reporting home values in all four years 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000. Dissolved oxygen deficits and the share of waters that are not fishable both decreased almost every year between 1962 and 1990 (FigureII). Graphs show year fixed effects plus a constant from regressions that also control for monitoring site fixed effects, a day-of-year cubic polynomial, and an hour-of-day cubic polynomial, corresponding to equation (1) from the text. The Author(s) 2018. Some studies in historic or developing country settings, where drinking water regulation is limited, relate surface water quality to health (Ebenstein 2012; Greenstone and Hanna 2014; Alsan and Goldin forthcoming). Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. What are pros and cons of legalism? Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Data cover decennial census years 19702000. The annual cost to make a river-mile fishable ranges from |${\$}$|1.5 to |${\$}$|1.9 million.19, Cost-Effectiveness of Clean Water Act Grants (|${\$}$|2014 MN). We also report unweighted estimates. Engineering calculations in USEPA (2000c) suggest that the efficiency with which treatment plants removed pollution grew faster in the 1960s than in the 1980s or 1990s. Rainwater monitors that are not in our data record increases of similar magnitude in rainwater pH over this period, and attribute it to declines in atmospheric sulfur air pollution (USEPA 2007). Because most grants were given in the 1970s, we observe water pollution up to 10years before and 1525years after most grants. But if local governments ultimately pay these costs, they could depress home values. (1972) The Clean Water Act (CWA) establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. Dissolved oxygen deficit equals 100 minus dissolved oxygen saturation, measured in percentage points. Cost-effective regulation equates marginal abatement costs across sources, which requires regulating all sources. Surface waters, by contrast, are typically filtered through a drinking water treatment plant before people drink them. All You Need to Know About The Clean Water Act & Its Amendments \end{equation}, Political Internalization of Economic Externalities and Environmental Policy, What Are Cities Worth? Row 4 is calculated following the method described in Online Appendix B.4. Column (2) includes plants in the continental United States with latitude and longitude data. We use the following equation to assess year-by-year changes in water pollution: \begin{equation} Our topic is clean water and sanitation. These estimates are even less positive than the estimates for housing. River miles * pct. The definition also includes standards for boating and drinking water that we do not analyze. We find large declines in most pollutants that the Clean Water Act targeted. Panel C estimates the effect of grants on log housing units and Panel D on the log of the total value of the housing stock. The curve 1 describes the bid function of one type of consumer. We estimate the value of wetlands for flood mitigation across the US using detailed flood claims and land use data. Implemented in response to growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution in the U.S., the Clean Water Act followed the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, and preceded the Endangered Species Act of 1973, making it part of a period of landmark . The bottom decile of counties, for example, includes ratios of measured benefits to costs of below 0.01. We study |${\$}$|650 billion in expenditure from 35,000 grants the federal government gave cities to improve wastewater treatment plants. The Clean Water Act Flashcards | Quizlet Estimates appear in Online Appendix TableVIII and discussion appears in Online Appendix E.3. We interpret pre-1972 trends cautiously, however, because far fewer monitoring sites recorded data before the 1970s (Online Appendix TableI) and because the higher-quality monitoring networks (NAWQA, NASQAN, and HBN) focused their data collection after 1972. Home prices and rents are deflated to 2014 dollars by the Bureau of Labor Statistics consumer price index for urban consumers. The clean water act is making sure every person has clean water to drink. This extra subsidy fell to 75% in 1984, and about 8% of projects received the subsidy for innovative technology (U.S. Government Accountability Office 1994). One possible channel is that wages change to reflect the improvement in amenities (Roback 1982). Consequences of the Clean Water Act and the Demand for Water Quality Effects of Clean Water Act Grants on Log Mean Home Values: Event Study Graphs. The estimates in TableIV are generally consistent with near complete pass-through, that is, little or no crowding out or in beyond the required municipal capital copayment. Provide federal assistance to control municipal discharges of wastewater. Incomplete information would be especially important if pollution abatement improves health. One is to estimate hedonic regressions excluding housing units in the same city as the wastewater treatment plant. Resources for the Future, Public Policies for Environmental Protection, The Impact of Intergovernmental Fiscal Transfers: A Synthesis of the Conceptual and Empirical Literature, Intergovernmental Fiscal Transfers: Principles and Practice, Analysis of National Water Pollution Control Policies: 2. Panel B analyzes how grants affect log mean rental values. Industrial Water Pollution in the United States: Direct Regulation or Market Incentive? The Clean Water Act (CWA) contains a number of complex and interrelated elements of overall water quality management. Graphs show coefficients on year-since-grant indicators from regressions corresponding to the specification of TableV, columns (2) and (4). Effects of Clean Water Act Grants on Housing Demand. We also report a range of sensitivity analyses, which are broadly in line with the main results. Notably, almost half of this decline in state and local wastewater treatment capital spending occurred before the Clean Water Act. Market-Based Emissions Regulation When Damages Vary Across Sources: What Are the Gains from Differentiation? Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Its mission is to improve environmental, energy, and natural resource decisions through impartial economic research and policy engagement. The federal government paid 75% of the capital cost for most construction projects awarded through September 1984, and 55% thereafter; local governments paid the rest of the capital costs. Primary focus: Establish cooperation between feds and states. Connected dots show yearly values, dashed lines show 95% confidence interval. Analyses of the Clean Air Act relying solely on hedonic estimates generally have smaller cost-benefit ratios; the EPAs benefit numbers for air pollution rely heavily on estimated mortality impacts. Dollar values in |${\$}$|2014 millions. Objective Measures in the Valuation of Water Quality, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Water Use and Conservation in Manufacturing: Evidence from U.S. Microdata, A Nationwide Comparison of Driving Distance versus Straight-Line Distance to Hospitals, The Value of Clean Water: The Publics Willingness to Pay for Boatable, Fishable, and Swimmable Quality Water, Efficient Investment in Wastewater Treatment Plants, The Effectiveness of Incomplete and Overlapping Pollution Regulation: Evidence from Bans on Phosphate in Automatic Dishwasher Detergent, Something in the Water: Contaminated Drinking Water and Infant Health, Defensive Investments and the Demand for Air Quality: Evidence from the NOx Budget Program, Panel Data Analysis of Regulatory Factors Shaping Environmental Performance, Regulatory Factors Shaping Environmental Performance at Public-Owned Treatment Plants, The Consequences of Industrialization: Evidence from Water Pollution and Digestive Cancers in China, Residents Perceptions of Water Quality Improvements Following Remediation Work in the Pymmes Brook Catchment, North London, UK. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Foremost is the requirement in section 303 that states establish ambient water quality standards for water bodies, consisting of the designated use or uses of a Air is typically unfiltered when it is inhaled, so air pollution is believed to have large mortality consequences that account for much of the benefits of air pollution regulation. Panels A and B reflect the classic hedonic model, with fixed housing stock. One involves declining returns to abatement of pollution from point sources. At the same time, much oxygen-demanding pollution comes from agriculture and other nonpoint sources, and those sources have remained largely unregulated. The share of waters that are fishable has grown by 12 percentage points since the Clean Water Act. $4.2 Billion Environmental Bond Act: What you should know Data and code replicating tables and figures in this article can be found in Keiser and Shapiro (2018), in the Harvard Dataverse, doi:10.7910/DVN/2JRHN6. Finally, we note one similarity between air and water pollution that may be relevant to policy design. We did not use these data because they focus on 1990 and later, mainly measure pesticides, and have a small sample. These effects grow in magnitude over the first 10 years, are statistically significant in this period, and remain negative for about 30years after a grant. We find similar trends for the pollutant they study in lakes, though we show that other pollutants are declining in lakes and that most pollutants are declining in other types of waters. Lack civil or criminal penalties for violations. Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Quality Data Submission Tools Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, Environmental Policy Choice: Pollution Abatement Subsidies, Water Pollution Policy. Environmental Bill: The Pros and Cons - The New York Times Online Appendix FigureVII illustrates. Smith and Wolloh (2012) study one measure of pollution (dissolved oxygen) in lakes beginning after the Clean Water Act and use data from one of the repositories we analyze. Panel A estimates pass-through modestly above 1 since it excludes the required municipal copayment. If sewer fees were particularly important, then one would expect rents to increase more than home values do; if anything, the estimates of TableV suggest the opposite. Third, these grants could lead to increased city taxes, sewer fees, or other local costs that depress home values. In this sense, the existence of the Clean Water Act did crowd out aggregate municipal investment in wastewater treatment. Finally, we interpret our pass-through estimates cautiously because they reflect only 198 cities, do not use upstream waters as a comparison group, and reflect pass-through of marginal changes in investment, rather than the entire Clean Water Act. Pros And Cons Of The Clean Water Act - 277 Words | Bartleby Asterisks denote p-value < .10 (*), < .05 (**), or < .01 (***). When Subsidies for Pollution Abatement Increase Total Emissions, Water Quality and Economics: Willingness to Pay, Efficiency, Cost-effectiveness, and New Research Frontiers, Handbook on the Economics of Natural Resources, Evidence of the Effects of Water Quality on Residential Land Prices, Decentralization and Pollution Spillovers: Evidence from the Re-drawing of County Borders in Brazil, Taxation with Representation: Intergovernmental Grants in a Plebiscite Democracy, An Economic Analysis of Clean Water Act Issues, Contingent Valuation of Environmental Goods, A Symphonic Approach to Water Management: The Quest for New Models of Watershed Governance, Ex Post Evaluation of an Earmarked Tax on Air Pollution, Microeconometric Strategies for Dealing with Unobservables and Endogenous Variables in Recreation Demand Models, The Housing Market Impacts of Shale Gas Development, Efficient Pollution Regulation: Getting the Prices Right, Environmental Accounting for Pollution in the United States Economy, Handling Unobserved Site Characteristics in Random Utility Models of Recreational Demand, Presidential Veto Message: Nixon Vetoes Water Pollution Act, Review of Environmental Economics & Policy, Shale Gas Development Impacts on Surface Water Quality in Pennsylvania, Homeownership Returns, Tenure Choice and Inflation, Objective versus Subjective Measures of Water Clarity in Hedonic Property Value Models, Building a National Water Quality Monitoring Program, Why Is Pollution from U.S. Manufacturing Declining? Notes. We analyze all these physical pollutants in levels, though Online Appendix Tables III and VI show results also in logs. Even without the hedonic estimates of the next section, one can combine cost-effectiveness numbers with estimates from other studies of the value of clean waters to obtain a cost-benefit analysis of these grants. Ninety-five percent confidence regions are in brackets. The census long form has housing data and was collected from one in six households on average, but the exact proportion sampled varies across tracts. A few notes are important for interpreting these statistics. 2001; Steinwender, Gundacker, and Wittmann 2008; Artell, Ahtiainen, and Pouta 2013). Notes. Has Surface Water Quality Improved since the Clean Water Act? All values in billions (|${\$}$|2014). We include all capital and operating and maintenance costs in the measure of total grant project costs. Row 8 equals row 1 divided by 30 times row 6. saturation increase/10, 7. 8 Reasons the Clean Water Rule Fails to Protect People and - EcoWatch Data include years 19622001. First, this is the average cost to supply water quality via Clean Water Act grants; the marginal cost, or the cost for a specific river, may differ. Hence decreases in acidic sulfur air pollution may have contributed to decreases in acidic water pollution. ) is that it reflects the equilibrium of firms that supply housing and consumers that demand housing. CBO (1985) dictates this time period because it provides the national total state and local spending data underlying this graph. The historic law was designed to protect all of our waters - from the smallest streams to the mightiest rivers - from pollution and destruction. Column (3) includes all plants and grants with minimum required data (e.g., grants linked to the exact treatment plant even if without latitude or longitude data) and assumes all plants have 25 miles of rivers downstream. Leads decrease of about 10% a year may be related to air pollution regulations, such as prohibiting leaded gasoline. Data cover the years 19622001. Row 6 is calculated by multiplying each grant by the parameter estimate in TableII, column (1), and applying the result to all waters within 25 miles downstream of the treatment plant. The Clean Water Act, passed with bipartisan support, was a historic milestone establishing a fundamental right to clean water. Column (1) shows estimates for homes within a quarter mile of downstream waters. But Supreme Court decisions in 2001 and 2006 threw protections into question for 60 percent of our nation's streams and millions of acres of wetlands. In the presence of such general equilibrium changes, our estimates could be interpreted as a lower bound on willingness to pay (Banzhaf 2015). We discuss a range of pass-through estimates including these for cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. The EPA did audit grants to minimize malfeasance. Finally, we average this ratio across plants in each county. Asterisks denote p-value < .10 (*), < .05 (**), or < .01 (***). The USEPAs (2000a) cost-benefit analysis of the Clean Water Act estimates that nonuse values are a sixth as large as use values. They give similar qualitative conclusions as the main results, though exact point estimates vary. Notes. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. The curve 1 describes the offer function of a firm, and 2 of another firm. Fishable readings have BOD below 2.4mg/L, dissolved oxygen above 64% saturation (equivalently, dissolved oxygen deficits below 36%), fecal coliforms below 1,000 MPN/100mL, and TSS below 50mg/L. The 1972 law was formally called the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments, though we follow common practice in referring to it as the Clean Water Act. In 2020, the Clean Air Act Amendments will prevent over 230,000 early deaths. See Kline and Walters (2016) for a related analysis in education. We use the following regression to estimate the effects of Clean Water Act grants on water pollution: \begin{equation} Volume II, Clean Water Construction Grants Program News, Handbook of Procedures: Construction Grants Program for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Works, The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act, 1970 to 1990, A Benefits Assessment of Water Pollution Control Programs Since 1972: Part 1, The Benefits of Point Source Controls for Conventional Pollutants in Rivers and Streams: Final Report, A Retrospective Assessment of the Costs of the Clean Water Act: 1972 to 1997: Final Report, Progress in Water Quality: An Evaluation of the National Investment in Municipal Wastewater Treatment, The National Costs to Implement TMDLs (Draft Report): Support Document 2, The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis, ATTAINS, National Summary of State Information, Water Pollution: Information on the Use of Alternative Wastewater Treatment Systems, From Microlevel Decisions to Landscape Changes: An Assessment of Agricultural Conservation Policies, American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 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Robert Mccann Obituary, Articles C